STEM OnLine Mini Dictionary
Ablation
The total loss of ice and snow from a glacier due to melting, evaporation, or the calving of icebergs.
Abscissa Axis
The horizontal line in the Cartesian plane, generally represented by the variable $x$.
Absolute Frequency
The number of times a specific value or response occurs within a data set.
Absolute Value
The numerical magnitude of a value regardless of its sign, defined as the positive distance between that number and the origin.
Absolute Zero
Theoretical minimum temperature (0 K or -273.15 °C) at which particles reach their minimum energy level.
Absorbed Power
Total power consumed by a receiver or component to perform its function and cover its internal losses.
Acceleration
Change in the velocity vector of a body per unit of time as a result of a net force.
Acid
Substance that has a pH lower than 7 and is capable of releasing hydrogen ions in a solution.
Acid Salt
Salt containing replaceable hydrogen atoms in its structure, coming from a partially neutralized polyprotic acid.
Activation Energy
Minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to start. It is usually measured in joules per mole (J/mol).
Active Elements
Circuit components capable of supplying electrical energy or controlling current flow, such as power supplies.
Additive Synthesis
Method of obtaining colors by adding lights of different wavelengths, used in screens and RGB systems.
Air Resistance
Friction force exerted by the atmosphere that opposes the motion of a falling body.
Albedo
Proportion of sunlight that a planetary surface reflects back into space.
Algebra
Branch studying structures and operations using symbols and formal rules.
Algebraic Equality
An expression including numbers and letters (variables), which can be true for certain values or for all of them.
Alkane
Hydrocarbon composed only of carbon and hydrogen atoms joined by single bonds.
Alkyl Group
Structure resulting from removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane, allowing it to attach to a main chain as a branch.
Alpha Emission (α)
Type of decay where the nucleus emits a heavy particle composed of two protons and two neutrons (Helium-4 nucleus).
Alternating Current
Type of electric current in which charges periodically change direction.
Altitude
Vertical distance of a point relative to sea level (m); it is the main factor determining pressure variation.
Ammeter
Instrument designed to measure current intensity; it must always be connected in series within the circuit.
Amphoterism
Chemical ability of water to act as an acid or a base depending on the substance it reacts with.
Amplitude
Maximum displacement value of an oscillating body relative to its equilibrium position.
Analemma
Figure-eight curve representing the Sun’s position if observed daily at the same time.
Analytical Chemistry
Branch of chemistry studying methods to identify and quantify chemical substances.
Anemometer
Instrument used to measure wind speed.
Angle
The opening formed by two rays with a common origin called a vertex; its standard SI unit is the radian (rad), though it is commonly measured in degrees (°).
Angle of Incidence
Angle formed between the incident ray and the normal line at the point of contact with the surface.
Angle of Refraction
Angle between the normal line and the light ray propagating through the second medium.
Angular Displacement
Angle swept by an object in circular motion, generally measured in radians.
Angular Frequency
Measure of the rotation rate or the rate of change of the motion’s phase, expressed in radians per second (rad/s).
Angular Velocity
Rate at which an object’s angular displacement changes per unit of time.
Anion
Ion with a negative electrical charge formed when a neutral atom gains one or more electrons.
Antecedent
The first term of a ratio (numerator) that is compared with the second to establish a quantitative relationship.
Anticyclonic Wind
Air rotating outward from a high-pressure center.
Calculus
Branch of mathematics analyzing change using derivatives, integrals, and limits to solve continuous problems.
Calorie
Amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of pure water by 1 °C. It is equivalent to 4.184 J.
Capacitance
Ability of a component to store electric charge per unit of potential difference, defined as C = Q / V and measured in Farads (F) in the SI.
Capacitor
Passive component designed to store electrical energy in the form of an electrostatic field between two conductive plates.
Capacitor Charging
Dynamic process in which a capacitor accumulates energy, its voltage increasing exponentially until it equals that of the source.
Capacitor Discharging
Dynamic process in which a capacitor releases stored energy through a resistor, its voltage decreasing exponentially to zero.
Carbon Dioxide
Main greenhouse gas generated by burning fossil fuels and respiration.
Cartesian Plane
A two-dimensional system formed by two perpendicular graduated lines that allow any point to be located using a pair of coordinates $(x, y)$.
Catalyst
Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed or permanently altered in the process.
Catalytic Electrode
Conductive surface that facilitates the redox reaction of external gases without being consumed or degraded during the process.
Cathetus
Each of the two sides that form the right angle in a right triangle.
Cation
Ion with a positive electrical charge formed when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons.
Celestial Equator
Great circle on the celestial sphere resulting from projecting Earth’s equator into space.
Celestial Meridian
Great circle passing through the celestial poles and an observer’s zenith.
Celestial Pole
Intersection points of Earth’s rotation axis with the celestial sphere.
Celestial Sphere
Imaginary sphere of infinite radius, centered on the Earth, onto which celestial bodies are projected.
Center of Buoyancy
Point where the buoyant force is considered to be applied, coinciding with the center of gravity of the displaced fluid volume.
Center of Gravity
Specific point where the resultant gravitational force of a body is considered to act.
Center of Mass
Geometric point where the entire mass of a system is considered concentrated for motion analysis.
Centrifugal Force
Apparent force that tends to move a body away from the center of rotation when observed from an accelerated system.
Centripetal Acceleration
Quantity that measures the change in velocity direction of a body following a curved path.
Centripetal Force
Net force directed toward the center of the trajectory that forces a body to follow a curve.
Chain Reaction
Fission process where released neutrons strike other heavy nuclei, causing a series of successive and self-sustained fissions.
Change in Momentum
Change experienced in a body’s momentum, which is numerically equal to the received impulse.
Charles’s Law
States that, at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂).
Chemical Bond
Set of forces that hold atoms, ions, or molecules together to form more complex and stable structures.
Chemical Compound
Substance formed by the chemical union of two or more elements in defined proportions.
Chemical Element
Pure substance formed by atoms with the same number of protons.
Chemical Energy
Potential energy stored in chemical bonds that is released or absorbed during a reaction.
Chemical Equation
Symbolic representation of a chemical reaction showing the substances that react and those that are produced.
Chemical Law
General relationship experimentally verified that describes the behavior of chemical substances.
Chemical Model
Simplified representation of chemical substances or processes allowing study and prediction.
Chemical Property
Characteristic of a substance describing its behavior during a chemical transformation.
Chemical Quantity
Measurable property of a chemical system expressed using a numerical value and a unit.
Chemical Reaction
Thermodynamic process in which one or more substances transform their molecular structure and bonds to form new substances.
Chromatic Aberration
Optical defect common in refractors where colors do not focus at the same point, creating colored edges.
Dalton’s Law
States that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas.
Damping
Energy dissipation process in an oscillatory system that gradually reduces the amplitude of motion.
Data Distribution
The way the values of a variable are organized and spread, allowing for the identification of patterns and trends.
Declination
Celestial coordinate equivalent to latitude, measured north or south of the celestial equator.
Decomposition Potential
Minimum external voltage that must be applied to an electrolytic cell for electrolysis to occur continuously.
Decomposition Reaction
Process in which a single compound fragments into two or more simpler substances.
Definition
Precise explanation of the meaning of a concept within a formal system.
Deformation
Change in the length or shape of an elastic body (stretching or compression) relative to its equilibrium position.
Degree
Angular measurement unit that divides a circle into 360 equal parts (°).
Degree Celsius
Temperature unit based on the freezing (0 °C) and boiling (100 °C) points of water at standard pressure.
Degree Fahrenheit
Temperature scale where the freezing point of water is 32 °F and the boiling point is 212 °F.
Denominator
The lower number that determines how many equal parts the unit is divided into; it can never be zero due to mathematical impossibility.
Density
Scalar quantity expressing the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance, measured in kg/m³ in the SI.
Dependent Variable
A magnitude whose value is determined by the function’s correspondence rule when applied to the independent variable.
Derivative
A function that measures the rate of change of one variable with respect to another, mathematically representing the slope of the curve at each point.
Destructive Interference
Phenomenon that occurs when waves meet in phase opposition, subtracting their amplitudes and potentially canceling each other out.
Deuterium
Stable isotope of hydrogen containing one proton and one neutron in its nucleus.
Dew Point
Specific temperature to which an air mass must be cooled to reach saturation and begin condensation.
Diagonal
A line segment connecting two non-consecutive vertices of a polygon.
Diatomic Gas
Molecule formed by two atoms of the same element, as occurs with elemental hydrogen in nature.
Dielectric
Insulating material that, when placed between the plates of a capacitor, increases its capacitance by reducing the internal electric field.
Dielectric Strength
Maximum electric field intensity that an insulator can withstand before becoming conductive (breakdown).
Differentiability
A property of a function that guarantees the existence of its derivative at a given point or interval.
Diffuse Reflection
Scattering of light in multiple directions when striking a rough surface, preventing the formation of sharp images.
Diffusion
Process by which the particles of one gas gradually mix with those of another due to their random thermal motion.
Digital Circuit
Electrical circuit operating with discrete signals represented by defined levels.
Dilution
Procedure that consists of decreasing the concentration of a solute by adding more solvent.
Diminished Image
Type of image produced by diverging lenses that is always smaller in size than the actual object.
Direct Current
Type of electric current in which charges move always in the same direction.
Direct Proportion
A relationship where an increase in one magnitude causes a proportional increase in the other, keeping their quotient constant.
Direct Proportionality
Relationship in a voltage divider where a higher resistance corresponds to a higher voltage drop (V ∝ R).
Direction
The straight line upon which the vector lies, defined by the angle it forms with the reference axes.
Displaced Volume
Space occupied by the fluid that has been moved aside by the body upon immersion, measured in m³ in the SI.
Displacement
Vector quantity that measures the change in position of an object from its initial point to its final point.
Dissipated Power
Part of the electrical power that is lost in the form of heat due to the resistance of components or conductors.
Dissipative Force
Force that transforms work into non-recoverable energy, usually heat (such as friction), depending on the path.
Earth
Third planet from the Solar System, the only one with confirmed life and surface liquid water.
Earth Model
Simplified representation of the Earth system for study and prediction.
Earth System
Set formed by the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere interacting.
Earth’s Crust
Outermost and thinnest layer of the Earth, composed of solid rocks.
Earth’s Magnetic Field
Magnetic field surrounding the Earth, originated by the movement of liquid metals in its core, acting as a protective shield.
Earthquake
Sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust in the form of seismic waves, caused by the movement of faults or tectonic plates.
Eccentricity
Measure of how much a planet’s orbit deviates from being a perfect circle.
Ecliptic
Curved line along which the Sun’s apparent motion occurs as seen from Earth.
Effusion
Process by which a gas under pressure escapes from a container to the outside through a small opening.
Elastic Collision
Collision in which the total kinetic energy of the system is conserved, with no transformation of energy into heat or deformation.
Elastic Energy
Energy stored in bodies when deformed, measured in joules (J) and dependent on the elasticity constant.
Elastic Force
Force exerted by objects such as springs that have been deformed and seek to return to their original shape.
Elastic Limit
Maximum deformation a material can withstand without undergoing permanent changes in its shape.
Elastic Potential Energy
Energy stored in an elastic body when deformed, which is released when it returns to its original shape.
Electric Charge
Intrinsic property of subatomic particles that determines their electromagnetic interaction, measured in Coulombs (C) in the SI.
Electric Circuit
Set of interconnected components forming a closed path through which an electric current can flow.
Electric Energy
Total amount of work performed by the electric current in a given time, calculated as E = P · t and measured in Joules (J) or kWh.
Electric Field
Region of space where a charge experiences a force. It is defined by the relationship F = q · E, where force is the product of the charge and the field intensity.
Electric Field Intensity
Vector quantity that quantifies the force per unit charge (E = F / q), measured in N/C or V/m in the SI.
Electric Generator
Device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy based on electromagnetic induction by moving a conductor in a magnetic field.
Electric Load
Any circuit component (lamps, motors) that consumes electrical energy to perform work.
Electric Motor
Device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of magnetic fields and currents.
Electric Power
Rate at which energy is consumed or supplied in a circuit, calculated as P = V · I and measured in Watts (W).
Electrical Component
Individual element of a circuit performing a specific function within the system.
Electrical Conductivity
Measure of a material’s ability to carry electrical current. The SI unit of measurement is the Siemens per meter (S/m).
Electrical Efficiency
Ratio between the useful power used by the load and the total power supplied by the source, expressed as a percentage.
Electrical Energy
Energy derived from the movement of electrons through a conductor due to a potential difference.
Electrical Model
Simplified representation of an electrical circuit or system used for study.
Electrical Quantity
Measurable property of an electrical system expressed using a value and a unit.
Electrical Resistance
Measure of the opposition a material offers to the flow of electric current through it, measured in Ohms (Ω) in the SI.
Electrical Signal
Variation of an electrical quantity that carries information or energy.
Electrical System
Set of circuits and components interacting to perform an electrical function.
Electrochemistry
Discipline studying the reciprocal transformation between chemical and electrical energy through electronic transfer processes.
Electrodeposition
Process in which an electric current reduces metal ions in solution to form a solid coating on an electrode.
Electrolysis
Chemical decomposition phenomenon induced by an external electric current passing through an electrolyte.
Electrolyte
Substance that, when dissolved in water, dissociates into ions and allows the conduction of electric current.
Gas Density
Ratio between the mass of a gas and the volume it occupies. It is usually expressed in grams per liter (g/L).
Gas Properties
Physical and mechanical characteristics that define the behavior of matter in a gaseous state due to low molecular interaction.
Gay-Lussac’s Law
States that, at constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂).
General Atmospheric Circulation
Global system of air movements that redistributes heat across the planet.
General Relativity
Theory describing gravity as a curvature of space-time caused by the presence of mass and energy.
Geocentric Model
Ancient theory that placed the Earth at the center of the universe with celestial bodies revolving around it.
Geodesic
Shortest possible path between two points in a curved space, which is the path followed by objects in free fall.
Geodynamo
Physical mechanism explaining how the movement of liquid iron in the core generates the magnetic field.
Geoid
Theoretical shape of the Earth equivalent to the mean sea level extended through the continents.
Geological Fault
A fracture or zone of fracture between two blocks of rock that allows relative displacement between them, accumulating stress released in seisms.
Geological Law
General principle describing observable behaviors and relationships on Earth.
Geological quantity
A measurable property of a geological phenomenon or body, expressed in terms of a value and a unit.
Geological Scale
Temporal classification organizing Earth’s history into geological time units.
Geometric Formula
Mathematical expression that establishes the relationship between a figure’s dimensions to determine its area.
Geometric Optics
Branch of optics that studies light propagation using light rays and geometric representations of reflection and refraction.
Geometric Transformation
An operation that modifies the position, size, or shape of a graph (such as translations or rotations).
Geometry
Studies properties and relations of points, lines, surfaces, and solids in space.
Geostationary Orbit
Circular orbit above the Earth’s equator in which the satellite appears to be fixed in the sky.
Gibbs Phenomenon
An oscillation or overshoot” that occurs in the reconstruction of discontinuous functions (like square waves) near jump points.”
Glacial Cirque
An amphitheater-shaped depression located at the head of a glacial valley, where the snow that feeds the glacier accumulates.
Glacial Erosion
Process of wearing down the Earth’s relief caused by the movement of ice and the dragging of rocky materials.
Glacier
A large mass of compressed ice that forms through snow accumulation and flows slowly under its own weight.
Glacier Tongue
The lower part of a glacier that extends down a valley, characterized by the movement of ice and the erosion of the bedrock.
Global Warming
Increase in the Earth’s average temperature due to the rise in greenhouse gases.
Graphic Scale
The proportional relationship between the distances represented in the drawing and the actual magnitudes of the data.
Gravimetry
Method of measuring local gravitational acceleration based on the oscillation period of a pendulum.
Gravitational Acceleration
Intensity of the gravitational field on the surface. The SI unit of measurement is the meter per second squared (m/s2).
Gravitational Attraction
Force of mutual interaction between bodies with mass, responsible for the bulging of oceanic water masses.
Gravitational Field
Area of space in which a mass exerts its attractive influence on others.
Gravitational Lens
Phenomenon where light from a distant object bends as it passes near a large mass, acting as a cosmic magnifying glass.
Gravitational Potential Energy
Energy that depends on an object’s height relative to a reference level and the force of gravity.
Gravitational Redshift
Stretching of the wavelength of light (towards red) as it attempts to escape from an intense gravitational field.
Gravitational Waves
Ripples in the fabric of space-time produced by violent events, such as the collision of black holes.
Gravity
Mutual force of attraction between bodies with mass.
Greenhouse Effect
Natural process where certain gases trap solar heat to maintain a habitable temperature.
Greenhouse Gases
Gaseous components that trap thermal radiation and regulate the planet’s temperature.
Half-life
Time required for half of the nuclei in a radioactive sample to decay into a different element.
Harmonics
Sinusoidal components of the series whose frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Heat
Thermal energy in transit from one body to another. It is measured in Joules (J), though the calorie (cal) is used, where 1 cal = 4.184 J.
Height
The perpendicular distance measured from the base to the furthest point or vertex of a figure.
Heliocentric Model
Astronomical theory that places the Sun at the center of the system and the planets revolving around it.
High Tide
The moment when sea water reaches its maximum height within the tidal cycle; it is measured in meters (m) or feet (ft) relative to the mean level.
Hohmann Transfer Orbit
Orbital maneuver that uses two engine pulses to move a spacecraft between two circular orbits.
Homologous Series
Group of organic compounds with the same chemical function that differ only by the number of methylene groups.
Hooke’s Law
Physical principle stating that the force exerted by a spring is proportional to its deformation, measured in joules (J) regarding work performed.
Horizontal Displacement
Change in position of an object measured exclusively along the axis parallel to the horizon.
Hydration
Ability of some salts to incorporate water molecules into their crystal structure in a constant manner.
Hydraulic Press
Device that multiplies a force through the area ratio F1 / A1 = F2 / A2, based on Pascal’s principle.
Hydride
Chemical compound formed by the combination of hydrogen with any other element, whether metallic or non-metallic.
Hydrogen
Chemical element with atomic number 1, the lightest in the periodic table, which under normal conditions occurs as a diatomic gas (H₂).
Hydrogen Bond
Especially strong dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the oxygen of another.
Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure due to the weight of a fluid at rest, calculated as P = ρ · g · h and measured in Pascals (Pa) in the SI.
Hygrometer
Precision instrument designed to measure the moisture content in the atmosphere.
Hyperopia
Visual defect where images are focused behind the retina; it is corrected through the use of convex lenses.
Hypocenter
Point inside the Earth where the rupture that generates the seism originates; its depth is measured in kilometers (km).
Hypotenuse
The longest side in a right triangle, opposite the right angle.
Ice Sheet
A mass of glacial ice covering more than 50,000 km² of land and flowing in all directions (e.g., Antarctica and Greenland).
Ideal Gas
Theoretical gas composed of point particles with random displacements that do not interact with each other, following the gas laws.
Ideal Gas Law
Equation of state relating pressure, volume, temperature, and moles of a gas through the expression PV = nRT.
Image of a Point
The specific value returned by the function when evaluated at a concrete value within its domain.
Impact Force
Intense force acting over a very short period of time, characteristic of collisions and crashes.
Impedance
Total opposition a circuit offers to the flow of alternating current; it combines resistance and reactances, measured in Ohms (Ω).
Improper Fraction
A fraction whose numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator, indicating the value is equal to or greater than one whole.
Impulse
Vector quantity product of the applied force by the time interval of action, measured in N·s.
Impulse-Momentum Theorem
Physical relationship stating that the impulse applied to a body equals the change in its linear momentum.
Incident Ray
Light beam that propagates toward a reflective surface before interacting with it.
Inclination
Degree of deviation of a surface or line from the horizontal or vertical.
Inclined Plane
Flat surface forming an angle with the horizontal plane, used to raise or lower bodies with less effort.
Incompressible Fluid
Substance whose density is assumed constant (ρ = constant in the SI) under pressure changes, such as most liquids.
Increment (Δx)
The difference or variation between two values of the independent variable used to calculate the rate of change.
Independence of Motions
Principle that allows decomposing a complex motion into simultaneous simple motions that do not interfere with each other.
Independent Event
An event whose probability of occurrence is not affected by the previous outcome of another distinct event.
Magnetic Declination
Angle between true north and the north indicated by a compass.
Magnetic Dipole
System composed of two opposite poles (north and south); isolated magnetic poles (monopoles) do not exist in nature.
Magnetic Energy
Energy accumulated within the magnetic field generated by the inductor during the passage of electric current.
Magnetic Field
Region of space where a moving electric charge experiences a magnetic force, measured in Teslas (T) in the SI.
Magnetic Flux
Measure of the amount of magnetism passing through a surface, calculated as Φ = B · A · cos(θ) and measured in Webers (Wb) in the SI.
Magnetic Permeability
Ability of a material to allow magnetic field lines to pass through it, measured in H/m in the SI.
Magnetic Pole
Point on the Earth’s surface where the magnetic field lines are vertical.
Magnetic Reversal
Event in which the Earth’s magnetic north and south poles swap positions.
Magnetosphere
Region around the Earth dominated by its magnetic field that deflects solar wind.
Magnification
Ratio between the size of the formed image and the actual size of the object observed through the lens.
Magnifying Glass
Optical instrument consisting of a short-focal-length convex lens that produces a virtual, upright, and enlarged image.
Magnitude
Any physical or mathematical property that can be measured or counted and expressed through a numerical value.
Mantle
Intermediate layer of the Earth located between the crust and the core.
Mars
Fourth planet, called the Red Planet due to the iron oxide on its surface.
Mass
Amount of matter in a body, constant throughout the universe. The SI unit of measurement is the kilogram (kg) and in the English system the pound (lb).
Mass Number
Sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom, represented by the letter A.
Mass-Energy Equivalence
Physical principle stating that the energy released in a nuclear reaction comes from a small loss of mass during the process.
Materials Chemistry
Branch of chemistry studying structure, properties, and applications of solid and functional materials.
Mathematical Equality
A proposition of equivalence between two expressions separated by the = sign, indicating they both represent the same logical value.
Mathematical Function
A dependency relationship between two magnitudes where each input value corresponds to exactly one output value.
Mathematical Ratio
A binary link between two magnitudes expressed as a quotient to determine how many times one contains the other.
Maximum Kinetic Energy
Excess energy possessed by the electron after being released, which depends solely on the frequency of the incident light.
Measurement Resolution
The smallest variation in the measured quantity that the instrument is capable of detecting and displaying on its screen.
Measuring Instrument
Device used to measure electrical quantities within a circuit.
Mechanical Advantage
Numerical ratio indicating how much the applied force is multiplied in a simple machine relative to the resistance.
Mechanical Energy
Sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of a body or system in a given state.
Mechanical Wave
Type of wave that strictly requires a material medium (solid, liquid, or gas) in order to propagate.
Mechanical Work
Scalar quantity resulting from force by displacement and the cosine of the angle between them, measured in joules (J).
Median
The central value of an ordered data set that divides the sample into two equal parts, with 50% of the data above and 50% below.
Melting point
Temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid state at a given pressure.
Member
Each of the two expressions located on either side of the equal sign; called the first and second members.
Membrane Electrolyte
Selective barrier that allows the passage of specific ions between electrodes while blocking the direct passage of electrons and gases.
Mercalli Scale
Qualitative scale that measures seismic intensity based on observed effects and damage to people and structures.
Mesh (Loop)
Any closed path in a circuit that does not contain other closed paths within it.
Mesh Equation
Mathematical expression resulting from applying the voltage law to a closed path to find unknown currents.
Mesosphere
Middle layer of the atmosphere where temperature reaches its lowest levels and most meteoroids disintegrate.
Product
Substance formed as a result of a chemical reaction, written to the right of the arrow in the equation.
Projectile Motion
Two-dimensional motion whose curved trajectory results from the combination of a uniform horizontal advance and a vertical free fall.
Proof
Logical reasoning establishing the truth of a theorem or mathematical proposition.
Propagation Speed
Speed at which the perturbation travels, defined by the product of frequency and wavelength.
Proper Fraction
A type of fraction where the numerator is smaller than the denominator, always representing a value less than one whole unit.
Proportion
A statement of equality between two ratios, ensuring that the relationship between magnitudes remains constant on both sides.
Proportionality Constant
A fixed value relating two magnitudes; obtained by dividing any pair of corresponding values in a relationship.
Protection Elements
Components designed to interrupt the circuit in case of overload or short circuit to prevent damage (fuses, circuit breakers).
Proton
Subatomic particle with a positive electrical charge of 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C located in the atom’s nucleus.
Pulley
Simple machine consisting of a grooved wheel that rotates on an axle, used to move bodies; the work performed is measured in joules (J).
Quadrant
Each of the four regions into which the axes divide the Cartesian plane, numbered I to IV in a counterclockwise direction.
Quantization
Phenomenon by which physical quantities such as energy cannot vary continuously, but in discrete steps or packets”.”
Quantum Algorithm
Sequence of logical operations executed on a quantum computer to perform specific tasks with superior efficiency.
Quantum Computing
Computing paradigm that leverages phenomena such as superposition and entanglement to solve problems unreachable for classical computers.
Quantum Cryptography
Secure communication method that uses the laws of quantum physics to detect any attempt at data interception.
Quantum Decoherence
Process by which a quantum system loses its superposition properties due to interaction with the environment, becoming classical”.”
Quantum Entanglement
Intimate connection between particles where the state of one instantaneously depends on the state of the other, regardless of the distance separating them.
Quantum Mechanics
Branch of physics describing the behavior of matter and energy at atomic scales, where the laws of classical physics are no longer valid.
Quantum Probability
Measure of the possibility of a system being in a certain state after a measurement is performed, replacing classical certainty.
Quantum State
Physical condition describing all measurable properties of a system at the subatomic level at a given moment.
Quantum Supremacy
Point at which a quantum computing device can perform a calculation that is practically impossible for the most powerful classical supercomputer.
Quantum Teleportation
Process of transferring quantum state information to a remote location using entanglement and classical communication.
Qubit (Quantum Bit)
Basic unit of quantum information that, thanks to superposition, can represent 0, 1, or both states simultaneously.
Radial Velocity
Component of an object’s velocity that moves directly away from or toward the observer.
Radian
Angle measurement unit in the SI representing the central angle whose arc length is equal to the radius; it is approximately equal to 57.29°.
Radiant Energy
Energy transmitted through electromagnetic waves that can propagate through a vacuum.
Radiative Forcing
Change in the atmosphere’s net energy flow caused by climate factors.
Radio Telescope
Specialized antenna that captures radio waves from astronomical sources in space.
Radioactivity
Spontaneous process of decay of unstable atomic nuclei through the emission of particles and electromagnetic energy.
Radius of Curvatura
Design parameter defining the shape of the lens surface and determining its ability to converge or diverge light.
Radius of Rotation
Constant distance between the center of the circular path and the position of the moving particle.
Random Experiment
A process or action whose exact outcome cannot be predicted with certainty before it occurs, even under the same initial conditions.
Range or Image
The subset of values in the codomain that are actually reached by the function when the full domain is applied.
RC Circuit
Electrical configuration consisting of a resistor and a capacitor that exhibits time-dependent dynamic behavior.
Reactance
Opposition to the flow of alternating current due to inductance or capacitance, causing a phase shift between voltage and intensity.
Reactant
Initial substance that participates in a chemical reaction and is consumed to form new products.
Real Focal Point
Point where light rays physically converge after passing through a convex lens, allowing images to be projected.
Real Gas
Gas that does not behave exactly according to ideal laws due to intermolecular interactions and the actual volume of its particles.
Real Image
Image formed by the actual convergence of reflected rays, which can be projected onto a surface.
Real Numbers
The set comprising all rational and irrational numbers, allowing for the infinite continuity of the number line.
Reciprocal
The result of transposing the terms of a fraction; multiplying it by the original fraction always results in the number one.
Redshift
Phenomenon where an object’s light shifts toward longer wavelengths because it is moving away from the observer.
Reflected Ray
Light beam that moves away from the surface after bouncing off the point of incidence.
Reflecting Telescope
Instrument that uses curved mirrors instead of lenses to collect and focus light.
Reflexive Property
An axiom stating that every quantity is equal to itself (a = a), a fundamental basis of identity.
Refracted Ray
Light beam that, after passing through the separation surface between two media, continues its propagation in a different direction.
Solar Eclipse
Phenomenon where the Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun, obscuring the latter.
Solar Noon
Instant when the Sun crosses the observer’s meridian and reaches its highest point.
Solar Radiation
Energy in the form of light and heat emitted by the Sun that reaches the Earth.
Solar System
Set of planets and other celestial bodies orbiting around the Sun.
Solar Wind
Stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun.
Solenoid
Cylindrical coil with a uniformly wound conducting wire, whose inductance depends on the formula L = (μ · N² · A) / l.
Solstice
Time when the Sun reaches its maximum or minimum declination relative to the celestial equator.
Solubility
Maximum capacity of a substance to dissolve in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
Solute
Substance that dissolves in another and is generally found in a smaller proportion in a solution.
Solution
Homogeneous mixture at the molecular or ionic level of two or more pure substances that do not react with each other.
Solvation
Process by which solvent molecules surround and attract salt ions, facilitating their dissolution.
Solvent
Substance in which the solute dissolves, determining the physical state of the solution.
Space-Time
Mathematical model combining the three spatial dimensions and the temporal dimension into a single four-dimensional fabric.
Space-Time Curvature
Deformation of the fabric of the universe caused by massive objects, which determines the trajectory of other bodies and light.
Special Relativity
Physical theory describing the motion of bodies in the absence of gravitational fields at speeds close to that of light.
Specular Reflection
Orderly bouncing of light off a smooth surface, where parallel incident rays remain parallel after reflection.
Speed
Scalar quantity representing the distance traveled per unit of time, without considering direction.
Speed of Light
Constant speed of EM waves in a vacuum, approximately 2.99 · 10⁸ m/s, defined by the relationship c = λ · f.
Speed of Light (Limit)
Universal and invariable maximum speed for all observers, regardless of their state of motion.
Spherical Aberration
Optical defect where rays striking far from the axis focus at different points, causing a loss of sharpness.
Spontaneous Emission
Process by which an electron in an excited state returns to a lower level, releasing a photon without external intervention.
Spring Constant
Value indicating a spring’s stiffness, representing the force required to produce a unit of deformation (N/m).
Spring Tide
Phenomenon of maximum tidal range occurring when the Moon and the Sun are aligned (new and full moon).
Standard Atmosphere
Reference model establishing the mean pressure at sea level as 1013.25 hPa (1 atm) at a temperature of 15 °C.
Standard Conditions
Standard set of pressure (1 atm) and temperature (273.15 K) used to compare gas properties.
Standing Wave
Interference pattern formed by the superposition of an incident and a reflected wave, which appears not to travel.
Star
Object in space emitting light and heat, formed by high-temperature gases.
State of Matter
Notation in the equation (s, l, g, aq) indicating whether a substance is solid, liquid, gaseous, or in aqueous solution.
State of Rest
Condition of a body whose velocity is zero relative to a given frame of reference.
States of Matter
Forms of aggregation in which matter exists (solid, liquid, gas, and plasma) depending on the intensity of cohesive forces.
Static Friction
Resistance that prevents the start of sliding of an object at rest.
Statistical Range
A measure of dispersion indicating the difference between the maximum and minimum values of a distribution.
Statistics
The branch of mathematics that develops methods for collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data to draw valid conclusions.
Stator
Fixed part of an electric machine containing the magnets or coils that generate the magnetic field necessary for operation.
Steady State
Final equilibrium state where the current stabilizes and the inductor ideally behaves as a short circuit.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Law stating that the total energy emitted by a black body is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature.
Tangent
Trigonometric ratio defined as the quotient between the opposite side and the adjacent side to an angle.
Tangent Line
A straight line that touches a curve at a single given point and whose slope is equal to the derivative of the function at that point.
Telescope
Optical instrument designed to observe distant objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation.
Temperature
Measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system. It is measured in Kelvin (K), degrees Celsius (°C), or Fahrenheit (°F).
Temperature Coefficient
Factor indicating how the resistance of a material changes with temperature, generally increasing in metals.
Tensile Force
Force transmitted through a stretched flexible object, such as a rope, cable, or chain, pulling on objects at its ends.
Tension
Force exerted by a rope or cable that acts as the physical cause of centripetal acceleration.
Term
Each of the parts separated by addition or subtraction signs within the members of an equality.
Terminal Velocity
Constant maximum speed reached by a falling object when air resistance balances its weight.
Test Lead (Probe)
Insulated metal connectors that allow physical contact to be established between the measuring equipment and the circuit points.
The Moon
Earth’s only natural satellite that influences tides and stabilizes the Earth’s axis.
Theorem
Mathematical proposition provable from axioms and definitions within a logical system.
Thermal Balance
Equilibrium between incoming solar energy and heat energy leaving for space.
Thermal Conductivity
Measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through its mass.
Thermal Energy
Internal energy of a system due to the chaotic motion of its particles, manifested as temperature.
Thermal Equilibrium
State in which two bodies in contact reach the same temperature and net heat exchange ceases.
Thermodynamics
Branch of physics studying energy, heat, and the transformations of systems.
Thermosphere
Outer layer of the atmosphere where gas molecules absorb high-energy solar radiation, reaching very high temperatures.
Thévenin Equivalent Circuit
Simplified model that reproduces the same electrical behavior (V, I) as the original network from the load’s perspective.
Thévenin Resistance
Resistance seen from the load terminals when all independent internal sources have been zeroed out (voltage sources short-circuited).
Thévenin Voltage
Open-circuit voltage between the network terminals; it represents the electromotive force of the equivalent model.
Thévenin’s Theorem
Principle that allows replacing any linear network with an equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source and a series resistor.
Thin Lens
Transparent optical device whose thickness is negligible compared to the radii of curvature of its surfaces.
Threshold Frequency
Minimum frequency of incident light below which no electron emission occurs, regardless of intensity.
Tidal Current
Horizontal movement of water towards the coast (flood) or towards the sea (ebb) due to the variation in sea level.
Tidal Range
Vertical difference in height between consecutive high and low tides; expressed in meters (m) or feet (ft).
Tide
Periodic change in sea level produced mainly by the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun on the Earth.
Time Constant
Temporal parameter calculated as the ratio of inductance to resistance that defines how quickly the current responds to circuit variations.
Time Dilation
Phenomenon where time passes more slowly for an observer moving at high speed compared to one at rest.
Time Domain
The representation of a function or signal based on its evolution over time.
Torricelli’s Experiment
Scientific test that proved air has weight and can support a 760 mm mercury column at sea level.
Torricellian Vacuum
Airless space created at the top of a mercury tube when performing Torricelli’s experiment; it was the first evidence of a man-made vacuum.
Torsion Pendulum
System consisting of a body suspended from an elastic wire that oscillates through the rotational deformation of the material.
Total Internal Reflection
Phenomenon where light reflects completely within a medium (like optical fiber) when striking at an angle greater than the critical angle.
Traction
Ability of a wheel or tire to grip a surface without sliding to generate motion.
Trade Wind
Constant wind blowing from the tropics toward the equator.
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